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{{Short description|Descriptive term used in place of a formal name}}
{{Hatnote group|
{{Distinguish|Epitaph}}
{{For|the taxonomic usage|Epithet (disambiguation)}}
}}

{{More citations needed|date=March 2019}}

An '''epithet''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἐπίθετον}}'' (epítheton)|adjective}}, {{etymology||''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἐπίθετος}}'' (epíthetos)|additional}}),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2339438 |title=Epithetos |editor-first1=Henry George |editor-last1=Liddell |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last2=Scott |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=[[Perseus Project]]}}</ref> also a '''byname''', is a descriptive term (word or phrase) commonly accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a real or fictitious person, place, or thing. It is usually literally descriptive, as in [[Alfred the Great]], [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], [[Richard the Lionheart]], and [[Władysław I the Elbow-high|Ladislaus the Short]], or [[Allusion|allusive]], as in [[Edward the Confessor]], [[William the Conqueror]], [[Æthelred the Unready]], [[John Lackland]], [[Mehmed II|Mehmed the Conqueror]] and [[Mary I of England|Bloody Mary]].

The word ''epithet'' also may refer to an abusive, defamatory, or derogatory word or phrase.<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|epithet}}</ref><ref name="Herzfeld2016">{{cite book |last=Herzfeld |first=Michael |title=Cultural Intimacy: Social Poetics and the Real Life of States, Societies, and Institutions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSpCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 |year=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-29755-0 |page=73}}</ref> This use is criticized by Martin Manser and other proponents of [[linguistic prescription]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Manser |first=Martin H. |year=2007 |title=Good Word Guide |edition=6th |publisher=[[A & C Black]] |page=147 |isbn=978-0-7136-7759-1}}</ref> [[H.&nbsp;W. Fowler]] noted in 1926 that "''epithet'' is suffering a vulgarization that is giving it an abusive imputation".<ref>Fowler. H. W. (1965) [1926]. ''[[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage]]''. (2nd ed.) Rev. By Sir Ernest Gowers. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 161.</ref>

==Linguistics==
Epithets are sometimes attached to a person's name or appear in place of their name, as what might be described as a glorified nickname or [[sobriquet]], and for this reason some linguists have argued that they should be considered as [[pronouns]].<ref name="Patel-Grosz2015ch1">Patel-Grosz, P. (2015). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6JTWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 Epithets at the Syntax-semantics Interface]'', ch. 1. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.</ref> It has also been argued that epithets are a phenomenon with the [[syntax–semantics interface]], because they have components of both, and also a [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] dimension.<ref name="Patel-Grosz2015ch1"/>

An epithet is linked to its noun by long-established usage. Not every adjective is an epithet. An epithet is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative, such as if "cloud-gathering Zeus" is employed other than in reference to conjuring up a storm. "The epithets are decorative insofar as they are neither essential to the immediate context nor modeled especially for it. Among other things, they are extremely helpful to fill out a half-verse", [[Walter Burkert]] has noted.<ref>Burkert, W. ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture of the Early Archaic Age'', 1992, p.116.</ref>

Some epithets are known by the Latin term {{lang|la|epitheton necessarium}}, as they are required to distinguish the bearers, as an alternative to numbers after a prince's name—such as Richard the Lionheart ([[Richard I of England]]), or [[Charles the Fat]] alongside [[Charles the Bald]]. The same epithet can be used repeatedly joined to different names, such as [[Alexander the Great]] as well as [[Constantine the Great]].

Other epithets can easily be omitted without serious risk of confusion and are therefore known as {{lang|la|epitheton ornans}}. Thus, the classical Roman author [[Virgil]] systematically called his main hero {{lang|la|pius Aeneas}}, the epithet being {{lang|la|pius}}, meaning religiously observant, humble and wholesome, as well as calling the armsbearer of [[Aeneas]] {{lang|la|fidus Achates}}, the epithet being {{lang|la|fidus}}, which means faithful or loyal.

==Literature==
Epithets are characteristic of the style of ancient [[epic poetry]], notably in that of [[Homer]] or the northern European sagas (see above, as well as [[epithets in Homer]]). When [[James Joyce]] uses the phrase "the snot-green sea" he is playing Homer's familiar epithet "the wine-dark sea". The phrase "Discreet [[Telemachus]]" is also considered an epithet.

The Greek term {{Transliteration|el|[[antonomasia]]}}, in rhetoric, means substituting any epithet or phrase for a proper name, as "Pelides", signifying the "son of Peleus", to identify [[Achilles]]. An opposite substitution of a proper name for some generic term is also sometimes called {{Transliteration|el|antonomasia}}, as a [[Cicero]] for an orator. The use of a father's name or ancestor's name, such as "Pelides" in the case of Achilles, or "Saturnia" in the case of the goddess Juno in Virgil's ''Aeneid'', is specifically called a patronymic device and is in its own class of epithet.

In [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'', epithets are used in the prologue, such as "star-cross'd lovers" and "death-mark'd love."

Epithets were, in layman's terms, glorified nicknames that could be used to represent one's style, artistic nature, or even geographical reference. They originated to simply serve the purpose of dealing with names that were hard to pronounce or just unpleasant.<ref name=LKW>Wheeler, L. K. "Epithets", web.cn.edu, [[Carson-Newman College]]; accessed 25 October 2013.</ref> It from there went to something that could be very significant assigned by elders or counterparts to represent one's position in the community, or it could be a representation of whomever one wanted to be or thought he was.<ref>Headlam, W. "The Classic Review." jstor.org. Cambridge University Press, accessed 25 October 2013.</ref> The elegance of this movement was used throughout history and even modern day, with many examples ranging from "Aphrodite the Heavenly & Zeus the Protector of Guests" all the way to "[[Johnny Manziel|Johnny Football]] & King James".<ref name=LKW />

[[American comic book]]s tend to give epithets to [[superhero]]es, such as [[The Phantom]] being "The Ghost Who Walks", [[Superman]] called "The Man of Steel", and "The Dynamic Duo" [[Batman]] and [[Robin (comics)|Robin]], who are individually known as "The Dark Knight" and "The Boy Wonder".<ref>Thompson, Don. ''All in Color for a Dime'', Volume 25, p. 77. Arlington House, 1970. {{ISBN|0870000624}}</ref>

Additionally, {{lang|es|epíteto}}, the Spanish version of epithet, is commonly used throughout poems in Castilian literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sobejano |first=Gonzalo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxMuAAAAIAAJ |title=El epíteto en la lírica española |date=1956 |publisher=Editorial Gredos |language=es}}</ref>

==Religion==
{{main|Names of God}}
In many [[polytheistic]] religions, such as those of ancient India<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gonda|first=J.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110908916|title=Epithets in the Rgveda|date=1959-12-31|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-090891-6|location=Berlin, Boston|doi=10.1515/9783110908916}}</ref> and Iran<ref>For the most ancient Iranian divine epithets, cf. Sadovski, Velizar: [https://austriaca.at/3963-8inhalt?frames=yes ''Epitheta und Götternamen im älteren Indo-Iranischen. Die hymnischen Namenkataloge im Veda und im Avesta'' (''Stilistica Indo-Iranica, I.'')]. Fascicle II of: [https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at/disputationes-iranologicae-vindobonenses-i Panaino, Antonio – Sadovski, Velizar: ''Disputationes Iranologicae Vindobonenses, I''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109052542/https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at/disputationes-iranologicae-vindobonenses-i |date=2022-01-09 }} (Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Phil.-hist. Klasse, 764: Veröffentlichungen zur Iranistik 41). Wien 2007, 37–74 [with three registers, p. 75–108], ISBN 978-3-7001-3963-8. Print Edition: {{ISBN|978-3-7001-3990-4}}. Online Edition: [https://austriaca.at/3963-8?frames=yes doi:10.1553/0x0016ae99].</ref> (the most ancient of which go back to a common Indo-Iranian period),<ref>On their relation of the epithets of the Old Iranian Avesta to the ones attested in the Indic Vedas, and on their Indo-Iranian origin, see Sadovski, Velizar: ''Zur Morphologie und Semantik von Namen und Epitheta im Indo-Iranischen''. [https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at/disputationes-iranologicae-vindobonenses-ii Sadovski, Velizar / Panaino, Antonio: ''Disputationes Iranologicae Vindobonenses, II''.] (Sitzungsberichte der ÖAW. Philosophisch-historische Klasse, 845. Band / Veröffentlichungen zur Iranistik, Nr. 65). Wien. {{ISBN|978-3-7001-7140-9}}.</ref> Greece and Rome, a deity's epithets generally reflected a particular aspect of that god's essence and role, for which their influence may be obtained for a specific occasion: Apollo {{Transliteration|el|Musagetes}} is "[[Apollo]], [as] leader of the [[Muse]]s" and therefore patron of the arts and sciences, while ''Phoibos'' Apollo is the same deity, but as shining sun-god. "[[Athena]] protects the city as {{Transliteration|el|polias}}, oversees handicrafts as {{Transliteration|el|ergane}}, joins battle as {{Transliteration|el|[[Athena Promachos|promachos]]}} and grants victory as {{Transliteration|el|nike}}."<ref name=special>Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press, 1985) III.4.4. "The special character of Greek anthropomorphism", especially p.184.</ref>

Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, such as a reference to the mythological place of birth or [[Numen|numinous presence]] at a specific sanctuary: sacrifice might be offered on one and the same occasion to Pythian Apollo (''Apollo Pythios'') and Delphic Apollo (''Apollo Delphinios''). A localizing epithet refers simply to a particular center of veneration and the cultic tradition there, as the god manifested at a particular festival, for example: Zeus Olympios, Zeus as present at Olympia, or Apollo Karneios, Apollo at the Spartan [[Carneian festival]].

Often the epithet is the result of fusion of the Olympian divinity with an older one. [[Erectheus|Poseidon Erechtheus]] and [[Artemis Orthia]] reflect intercultural equations of a divinity with an older one that is generally considered its pendant. Thus, most Roman gods and goddesses, especially the [[Twelve Olympians]], had traditional counterparts in Greek, Etruscan, and most other Mediterranean pantheons, such as [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] as head of the Olympian Gods with [[Zeus]]. But in specific cults there may be a different equation, based on one specific aspect of the divinity. Thus, the Greek word {{Transliteration|el|Trismegistos}} ("thrice grand") was first used as a Greek name for the Egyptian god of science and invention, [[Thoth]], later as an {{Transliteration|el|epitheton}} for the Greek [[Hermes]] and, finally, the fully equated Roman Mercurius [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] (both were messenger of the gods). Among the Greeks, T.H. Price notes<ref>Price, T. H. ''Kourotrophos'', 1978, noted by Burkert 1985:184.</ref> that the nurturing power of {{Transliteration|el|Kourotrophos}} might be invoked in sacrifices and recorded in inscription, without specifically identifying [[Hera]] or [[Demeter]].

Some epithets were applied to several deities of the same pantheon rather accidentally if they had a common characteristic, or deliberately, emphasizing their blood or other ties. Thus, in pagan Rome, several divinities gods and heroes were given the {{Transliteration|el|epitheton}} ''[[Comes]]'' as companion of another (usually major) divinity. An epithet can even be meant for collective use, e.g., in Latin {{lang|la|pilleati}}, "the felt hat-wearers" for the brothers [[Castor and Pollux]]. Some epithets resist explanation.<ref name=special />

Catholics, [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christians, and Christians of other churches practice the use of epithets in the veneration of [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]] (e.g., "Christ"; "[[Christian messianic prophecies|Prince of Peace]]"; "[[Good Shepherd|The Good Shepherd]]"), of [[Mary, Mother of Jesus]] (e.g., "[[Theotokos|Mother of God]]"; "[[Panagia]]"), and of the saints (e.g., "[[Pope John Paul II|Pope Saint John Paul the Great]], [[Theophan the Recluse|Saint Theophan the Recluse]]"). "[[Our Lady of Lourdes]]" is essentially [[periphrasis]], except where some aspect of the Virgin is invoked.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}

==Rhetoric==

An epithet is an adjective or adjectival phrase that characterizes a place, a thing, or a person that helps make the characteristics of this thing more prominent. These descriptive phrases can be used in a positive or negative way that benefits the orator. "It will generally happen, that the Epithets employed by a skillful orator, will be found to be, in fact, so many abridged arguments, the force of which is sufficiently conveyed by a mere hint; e.g., if any one says, 'We ought to take warning from the bloody revolution of France,' the Epithet suggests one of the reasons for our being warned; and that, not less clearly, and more forcibly, than if the argument had been stated at length."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Whately|first1=Richard|title=Elements of Rhetoric|date=1841|volume=6}}</ref> With persuasion being a key component of rhetoric, it is rational to use epithets. The use of persuasive wording gives leverage to one's arguments. Knowledge along with descriptive words or phrases can be a powerful tool. This is supported in Bryan Short's article when he states, "The New Rhetoric derives its empiricist flavor from a pervasive respect for clarity and directness of language."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Short|first=Bryan|title=Figurative Language in the Scottish New Rhetoric Figurative Language in the Scottish New Rhetoric|journal=Language Sciences|volume=22|year=2000|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/S0388-0001(00)00005-X}}</ref> Rhetoricians use epithets to direct their audience to see their point of view, using verbal forms of imagery as a persuasive tactic.

Orators have a variety of epithets that they can employ that have different meanings.  The most common are fixed epithets and transferred epithets. A fixed epithet is the repetitive use of the same word or phrase for the same person or object. A transferred epithet qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is describing.  This is also known as a hypallage. This can often involve shifting a modifier from the animate to the inanimate; for example, "cheerful money" and "suicidal sky".

Orators take special care when using epithets so as to not use them as smear words.  Orators could be accused of racial or abusive epithets if used incorrectly. American journalist [[William Safire]] discussed the use of the word in a 2008 column in ''[[The New York Times]]'': "'I am working on a piece about nationalism with a focus on epithet as a smear word,' writes David Binder, my longtime Times colleague, 'which was still a synonym for 'delineation' or 'characterization' in my big 1942 Webster's but now seems to be almost exclusively a synonym for 'derogation' or 'smear word.' ... In the past century, [epithet] blossomed as 'a word of abuse,' today gleefully seized upon to describe political smears."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Safire|first1=William|title=Presents of the Mind|journal=The New York Times|date=June 22, 2008}}</ref>

==Usage prior to surnames==
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2021}}
Descriptive bynames were given to a person to distinguish them from other people of the same name.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Scott|first1=Brian M.|last2=Mittleman|first2=Joshua|date=1999|title=A Brief Introduction to Medieval Bynames|url=https://www.s-gabriel.org/names/arval/bynames/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730023928/https://www.s-gabriel.org/names/arval/bynames/|archive-date=30 July 2021|access-date=7 December 2021|website=The Academy of Saint Gabriel}}</ref> In England, bynames were used during the period when the use of [[surname]]s had not been extensively adopted. As an example, the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 identifies 40 individuals with the given name of "Richard". A plurality (40%), such as "Richard of Coursey"  are identified with a locational byname, indicating where they came from, or in some cases where they lived. Others (25%), such as "Richard the butler" and "Richard the bald" are identified with an occupational or a personally descriptive byname. Some of the individuals, such as [[Richard Basset]], made use of what would now be recognized as a surname.

The distinction between a byname and a surname is that the byname is not usually heritable, and may change for any given person as his circumstances change. Richard the Bald, for example, was presumably not always bald, and Richard of Brampton may not have always lived at Brampton.

The use of bynames did not end with the adoption of surnames. In some cases, before the adoption of middle names, government records, such as taxes lists, included people with both the same given name and the same surname. This led to the use of bynames to further distinguish the person.  For example, one "John Smith" might be described as "John Smith of the mill", while another might be described as "John Smith the short".

==See also==
* [[Animal epithet]]
* [[Bahuvrihi]], a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] formation often used for epithets
* [[Cognomen]]
* [[Honorific]]
* [[List of monarchs by nickname]]
* [[Lists of people by epithet]]
* [[Makurakotoba]]
* [[Nickname]]
* [[Plant epithet]]
* [[Sobriquet]]
* [[Synecdoche]]
* [[Toponymic surname]], a surname derived from a place name

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Epithets}}
*[http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante08/Homeros/hom_epit.html Homer's Epitheta ornantia] Bibliotheca Augustana

{{Personal names}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Epithets| ]]
[[Category:Onomastics]]
[[Category:Titles]]